In the vast Arabian desert, far from Ottoman rule, an ambitious leader named Ibn Saud emerged. Skilled in navigating harsh terrain and forging tribal alliances, his partnership with the Wahhabi movement combined political savvy with religious zeal, positioning him as a leader of a purified Islam that contrasted sharply with Ottoman practices. During World War I, while the Hashemites initially took the Hejaz from the Ottomans with British support, the British later recognized Ibn Saud’s potential for greater regional stability. His subsequent conquest of Mecca and Medina cemented the Al Saud’s spiritual and political legitimacy. From the unforgiving desert, Ibn Saud emerged not just as the ruler of a new kingdom, but as a key player in a new era, founding one of the most influential Muslim nations. But how did this desert leader transform from a tribal chief to an oil-rich monarch, wielding power that would shape the modern world?
The origins of the Al Saud dynasty can be traced back to 1744 in the heart of Arabia’s Najd region. Here, Muhammad bin Saud, a local chieftain of Diriyah, formed a pivotal alliance with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, a religious reformer advocating a return to what he perceived as the pure essence of Islam, later known as Wahhabism. This union between political ambition and religious zeal became the cornerstone of Saudi power. The pact was simple yet profound: Ibn Abd al-Wahhab would provide religious legitimacy to bin Saud’s rule, while bin Saud would protect and promote Ibn Abd al-Wahhab’s teachings.
With religious fervor as their banner and tribal alliances as their strength, the Al Saud began to expand their influence beyond Diriyah, bringing town after town in the Najd region under their control and giving rise to the First Saudi State. By the early 19th century, their growing power significantly alarmed the Ottoman Empire. Ibn Abd al-Wahhab questioned the legitimacy of the Ottoman Caliphs, arguing that their deviation from the true teachings of Islam disqualified them from being true leaders of the Muslim world.
As the Al Saud family expanded their grip across the Arabian Peninsula, they made a bold play for Mecca and Medina, directly challenging the Ottoman Sultan’s role as Caliph. This bold move didn’t sit well with the Ottomans, who quickly sent a force of 10,000 to 20,000 troops to quash the growing Wahhabi influence. The campaign was tough and unforgiving, with the Wahhabi followers facing harsh treatment. After a long and grueling siege, Diriyah was completely dismantled. The capture and subsequent execution of Emir Abdullah bin Saud in Istanbul was a clear message to any dissenters—it marked the bitter end of the First Saudi State.
After the destruction of Diriyah in 1818, Turki bin Abdullah bin Muhammad, a grandson of the dynasty’s founder, reemerged after several years in hiding to establish the Second Saudi State in 1824, choosing Riyadh as the new capital. His son, Abdul Rahman bin Faisal, succeeded him. However, Abdul Rahman faced defeat at the hands of the rival Rashidi tribe, backed by Ottoman forces, and was driven out of Riyadh. The Al Saud family sought refuge among the southern Bedouins and later in Kuwait, where they lived in exile.
In 1901, Abdul Aziz bin Abdul Rahman, known as Ibn Saud, ascended as the leader of his family. With just 60 men, he stealthily scaled the walls of Riyadh, overtaking the Rashidi governor’s forces in a daring nighttime raid in 1902, marking the resurgence of Saudi influence and the beginning of the third Saudi state. Abdulaziz’s strategy for expansion involved not only conventional warfare but also the formation of the Ikhwan, a military-religious brotherhood made up of Bedouin tribesmen converted to the Wahhabi cause.
During World War I, as the Ottoman Empire faltered, the Hashemites, supported by the British, seized the Hijaz region. This move was part of the broader Arab Revolt, which aimed to end Ottoman rule in the Arab territories.
The Hashemites’ vision of Pan-Arabism and their support for the Palestinian cause were seen as increasingly at odds with British strategic interests, which favored divided control. In this context, the British found a more compatible ally in Abdulaziz Ibn Saud, whose ambitions were more localized to the Arabian Peninsula rather than broader Arab unity. The strategic alliance was formalized through the Treaty of Darin in 1915, which declared Ibn Saud’s territories a British protectorate, providing him with military support and recognizing his sovereignty over Arabian coast. The successful navigation of these complex local and international dynamics led to the official establishment of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
In 1938, the discovery of oil by the Arabian American Oil Company in eastern Saudi Arabia transformed the kingdom into a global economic powerhouse, with oil output surging to over 400,000 barrels daily by 1947. During World War II, King Abdulaziz maintained neutrality but favored the Allies, culminating in significant meetings with Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt. The most pivotal of these was aboard the USS Quincy in 1945, where they laid the groundwork for a strategic partnership that integrated Saudi defense needs with American energy demands, transcending simple transactional interactions to form a complex alliance. This partnership, often simplified as an “oil for security” arrangement, involved broader security assurances and economic cooperation, which continued to evolve over the decades.
King Faisal took the throne in 1964 and quickly set about transforming Saudi Arabia with a wave of modernization and a bold foreign policy stance. He pushed major educational reforms, introduced television, and ended slavery. Known for his strong anti-communist views, Faisal was a passionate advocate for pan-Islamism and Arab unity. Faisal was a firm critic of Zionism, seeing it as a threat to the Arab world and the sanctity of Islamic sites. He threw his support behind the Palestinians, offering both diplomatic backing and practical help, which often put him at odds with American policies favoring Israel. This conflict came to a head during the 1973 Arab-Israeli War when Faisal led a groundbreaking oil embargo against Western nations supporting Israel. Faisal used Saudi oil as a tool to influence global politics, shaking up international oil prices and highlighting the West’s reliance on Middle Eastern oil. Unfortunately, Faisal’s time was cut short when he was assassinated by his nephew in 1975.
Following King Faisal’s reign, King Fahd strengthened ties with the USA and supported Saddam Hussein during the Iran-Iraq War. The 1990 invasion of Kuwait led Fahd to invite American forces to defend Saudi Arabia. King Abdullah, ruling from 2005 to 2015, navigated the War on Terror and the Arab Spring. His successor, King Salman, intensified the rivalry with Iran, engaging in proxy wars, marking a period of heightened Shia-Sunni conflict. This rivalry has led to conflicts in Yemen, Syria, and Lebanon.
Salman’s son, Mohammed bin Salman, became Crown Prince in 2017 and effectively rules Saudi Arabia. His policies have significantly impacted the future of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia. MBS has introduced a series of reforms under the Vision 2030 initiative aimed at modernizing the kingdom and reducing its dependency on oil. These reforms include reducing the powers of the religious police, bringing Western cultures, and promoting a more moderate form of Islam. MBS’s Vision 2030 aims to diversify the economy and modernize the country, positioning Saudi Arabia as a global investment powerhouse and a hub connecting Asia, Africa, and Europe. The Vision 2030 initiative includes projects like NEOM, a $500 billion high-tech city, and the Red Sea tourism project, designed to transform the country into a luxury travel destination.
The story of Saudi Arabia and the House of Saud is one of remarkable transformation, from a desert alliance in 1744 to a global powerhouse today. Through the fall of two Saudi states, regional conflicts, and the complexities of modernization, the kingdom has persistently evolved. Today, under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman’s Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia aims to diversify its economy and modernize its society, facing the crucial task of maintaining its influential role in the Muslim world. As the kingdom navigates this delicate balance between tradition and progress, its journey continues to shape not only its own future but also that of the Middle East and the wider world.