Bashar al-Assad, Syria’s dictator for over two decades, inherited not only his position but also a system of brutal repression from his father. Born into an Alawite family from the mountainous region of Qardaha, Bashar’s father, Hafez al-Assad, was the first Alawite to seize the presidency of Syria, a country with a majority Sunni Muslim population. Through military force and political manipulation, Hafez dominated the country, establishing a regime that would torture and kill tens of thousands of its own people. This raises a fundamental question: How did a minority sect like the Alawites manage to seize and maintain control over a majority Sunni Muslim nation? Was it purely military strategy, foreign influence, or a deeper manipulation of Syria’s social and political fabric?
The Alawites, a minority sect that splintered from the early Shi’a, trace their origins to the 9th century. While identifying as Muslims, Alawites were not fully recognized as part of the Islamic majority under the Ottoman Empire’s millet system. This exclusion stemmed from significant theological differences and their marginalized status within the Sunni-dominated Ottoman framework. Alawite beliefs blend elements of Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, and pre-Islamic traditions, with a profound reverence for the Forth Caliph Ali, whom they view as a divine figure.
Cut off in the mountains of Latakia, Alawites lived separately from the Sunni Muslim majority who controlled cities and government. Alawites lived apart from the Sunni Muslim majority, who controlled cities and government. The millet system granted legal independence to recognized religious groups, such as Christians and Jews, but Alawites were neither officially recognized as a separate millet nor fully accepted within the Sunni Muslim fold. This ambiguous status left them without the legal protections or privileges afforded to other groups.
The situation began to change under French colonial rule in the 20th century. Using divide-and-rule tactics, the French identified the Alawites as a distinct group and actively recruited them into the colonial military and local governance structures. A key figure in this shift was Ali ibn Sulayman al-Wahhish, the great-grandfather of Bashar al-Assad. He played a pivotal role by meeting with French authorities and seeking power for the Alawite community, advocating for their autonomy and their role in governance. By the time of Syrian independence, Alawites had gained significant presence in the military.
For Hafez al-Assad, the military provided a path to seize power. He joined the Syrian Air Force Academy, where he built influential relationships and climbed the ranks. In 1946, Hafez joined the Ba’ath Party, founded on the principles of Arab nationalism, socialism, and secularism. Following a series of military coups, first by the Ba’ath Party in 1963, then by the military in 1966, and lastly by Hafez directly in 1970, he ascended to power. Hafez officially declared himself president in 1971, beginning decades of brutal dictatorship.
The Assad regime used sectarian identity to build a network of loyalists who would help maintain its iron grip on power. Hafez systematically placed Alawites in key positions in the military and intelligence services. These groups not only controlled the military and intelligence apparatus but also seized control of Syria’s economy, ensuring the regime’s hold on both political and economic power. Through the Ba’ath Party, Hafez created a dictatorship centered entirely around himself.
While the Alawite community gained wealth and influence, the regime’s favoritism deepened divisions within Syria. The overwhelming presence of Alawites in the military and government created deep resentment among the Sunni majority and other communities.
In 1982, when the Muslim Brotherhood rose up against the regime, Hafez al-Assad unleashed a merciless assault on the city of Hama. Entire neighborhoods were obliterated as relentless artillery and airstrikes leveled the city to the ground, sparing nothing in their path. Homes, mosques, and markets were reduced to rubble, over 40,000 people were massacred.
After Hafez’s death in 2000, his son Bashar al-Assad took power. Initially, Bashar pretended to be a reformer, making empty promises about transparency, modernization, and economic changes. This period, known as the Damascus Spring, saw a brief emergence of civil society as intellectuals and activists called for political reforms. However, the regime quickly showed its true face, arresting reform advocates and intensifying its oppression.
When the Arab Spring reached Syria in 2011, no one could have predicted how brutally Assad would respond to his people’s calls for basic rights and reforms. What started with the regime’s torture of teenagers who wrote anti-government graffiti in Daraa turned into nationwide protests. Assad’s response? Bullets, arrests, and torture.
The situation spiraled into civil war as army defectors formed the Free Syrian Army to fight back. Assad then unleashed his full arsenal against civilians – from barrel bombs to chemical weapons like the infamous sarin gas attack in Ghouta. His notorious Saydnaya prison became a symbol of the regime’s cruelty, earning the grim nickname “human slaughterhouse” for its systematic torture of political prisoners.
As the war continued, the opposition split into various groups. The Syrian Civil War became a proxy conflict, with major powers backing different sides. Russia and Iran supported Assad’s killing machine, while the United States and its allies, including Turkey and Gulf nations, backed various opposition groups.
The war created one of the worst humanitarian catastrophes of the 21st century. Over 500,000 people have been killed, and millions have been forced to flee their homes. Refugees escaped to neighboring countries like Turkey, Jordan, and Lebanon, while many risked dangerous journeys to seek safety in Europe.
Bashar al-Assad’s eventual fall came after years of brutal warfare that destroyed Syria’s military and economy through international sanctions. The collapse of his regime marked the end of decades of dictatorship, but left behind a devastated nation, destroyed infrastructure, and a humanitarian disaster that will take generations to heal.